- Gender and Environment: Rocheleau
Issues in gender typically revolve around equality and rights, but when brought into the real of environmentalism, new possibilities and arguments are uncovered. With the historical roles and interactions that women have with the environment, it’s not a far shot to say that our society has latched onto these domestic consistencies. In Rocheleau’s work, the idea of feminist political ecology is explained and defined as a mix between feminist cultural ecology and political ecology. In order to define this new term, Rocheleau breaks it down into three underlying themes that incorporate our gendered understanding of knowledge, environmental rights and responsibilities, and environmental politics and grassroots activism. She also touches on 5 points brought up by other researchers and scientists that support the relationship of females and the environment, and thereby environmental and economic development. The Japanese woman was highly regarded in agricultural times, and held many rights and responsibilities. Also known as the shufu, the female lead of the house was in control over the economic progress as a result of rice production. As Japan became urbanized, the role of the shufu remained consistent in women as they transitioned into more modern households and lifestyles. Although sexual segregation still existed, “husbands rarely interfere with the decision making of their wives.” This power of women in an otherwise “oppressive” society is overlooked and can ultimately affect their relationship to the environment (Ueno 1987). Additionally, women in politics began to have an advantage as discussed in David McConnell’s “Culture and Power in Japan”. As a result of the harmonious society, men in the office tended to remain silent about political issues to avoid jeopardizing their job, which allowed women to advance due to their neutral social standings (McConell 2011). I found the latter to be another facet of the role in women in Japan that I had not considered.
2. Deconstructive Ecofeminism: A Japanese Critical Interpretation – Masatsugu Maruyama
This idea bridges well with the views posed by Maruyama in his article, “Deconstructive Ecofeminism”. This idea encompasses that hierarchical dualism is the root of oppression and must be transcended. Deconstruction of dualism, a mutual self, and care ethic are the points that ecofeminists prefer over more oppressive perspectives that lead to a divided society. When compared to the doctrine of the indigenous Shinto beliefs in Japan, there are instances where the deconstruction of dualism exists in the religion. Shinto emphasizes a fair treatment of people, as well as the environment. However, Maruyama criticizes the effectiveness of deconstructive ecofeminist arguments compared to Shinto and explains discussion areas that need to be improved. One of the areas of dualism that must be transcended according to the ecofeminists is culture/nature. The topic of care ethic explores the different standpoints of how individuals show care for the environment. In Japanese Shinto and Buddhism, the phrase “Japanese love of nature” is argued as a love for a formed nature or a love for the aesthetic of nature. This affection of nature is not concretely defined, nor is the gender to nature relationship defined as essentialist or conceptualist. This relates to Nightingale’s and Rocheleau’s idea of females having a learned vs. biological role in the environment. It is also interesting to note that one of the main discourses in Shinto is the Sun Goddess in which the agricultural society regards highly. Despite the Sun Goddess being female and emperors being regarded as descendants and thereby women, Shinto also prohibits women from certain aspects of agriculture due to their “pollution” (menstruation). I found this exploration into the Shinto very eye-opening for this topic, as it proves that there is not just one side to feminism.
A Feminist Political Ecology Perspective
Dianne Rocheleau, Barbara Thomas-Slayter, and Esther Wangari
From Dianne Rocheleau, Barbara Thomas-Slayter, and Esther Wangari, eds. Feminist Political Ecology: Global Issues & Local Experiences © 1996 by Routledge. Used by permission of Taylor & Francis.
3. Livelihoods and the Environment – Alex de Sherbinin et. al
It is apparent that the following correlation exists: As we continue to study population, we continue to reference the Malthusian theory. While neo-Malthusians argue that the world does not have enough food and resources to sustain the current rate of our population growth, their argument lacks minor, but powerful components. In this article, multiple authors from the publication, “Global Environmental Change” look beyond the raw statistics and definitions and into additional variables such as age and sex composition, migration, mortality, morbidity, and livelihoods. The sub category of household wellness encompasses everything from the physical environment of the home to the economic and cultural status of the residents. The authors recognized that the relationship between these household characteristics and the environment were essential to the ability of a family to reproduce and thrive. While the article is not aimed towards disagreeing or disproving Malthus’ original claims, many points that are often ignored are explained thoroughly. Along with 5 defined capitalistic categories, examples from varying countries, and, the readers are walked through 4 main household characteristics. In regards to Japan, Chizuko Ueno explains the shift of the woman in the household, particularly in agricultural homes. In a country where the population in declining, and the majority of land is not arable, modernization of Japan was the main instigator of the household changes. After the 1960s, the average Japanese household dropped from 5 to 3 and women began to seek jobs due to economic growth. In relation to the capitalistic categories, the shift in Japan can be seen as a decrease in physical and natural capital, resulting in industrialization and an increase in social and financial capital. This brings an interesting viewpoint to women as wives and mothers because typically, this role is viewed as oppressive. I wanted to connect this article to Japan because of juxtaposition of Malthus’ theory and declining populations.
Alex de Sherbinin, Leah VanWey, Kendra McSweeney, Rimjhim Aggarwal, Alisson Barbieri, Sabina Henry, Lori M. Hunter, Wayne Twine, and Robert Walker
Reprinted from Global Environmental Change 18(1), Alex de Sherbinin, Leah VanWey, Kendra McSweeney, Rimjhim Aggarwal, Alisson Barbieri, Sabina Henry, Lori M. Hunter, Wayne Twine, and Robert Walker, Rural Household Demographics, Livelihoods and the Environment, Pages 38-53, Copyright 2008, with permission of Elsevier.
4. Culture/Nature Collapsed into Cyborgs: Haraway
As we widen our breadth of readings regarding the divide and relationship between culture and nature, it is important to have an open mind for possible theories. We have established that this is a worthwhile topic not only to assess the impact of this divide on our environments, but to understand the progressive direction our society is leaning towards. Donna Haraway leaps out of the anthropological comfort zone of most and into a myth-based conversation about modern day humans and our transformation to becoming cyborgs. Defining culture to nature for Haraway is simple because she does not see humans fitting in as a part of nature, nor culture. She states with multiple definitions and exemplifications of humans to cyborgs that suggest that over time, humans have gained a lack of originality, a dependence on societal norms and a detachment from historical ways. As the “offspring of militarism and patriarchal capitalism, [and] state socialism”, Haraway discusses her fear for the cyborgs’ future and ability to survive. While most view the labelling of humans as part human, part machine to be extreme, the underlying problem that leads Haraway to this conclusion is our single-mindedness which causes lack of perspective and too much ambiguity. If a society is unable to broaden their horizons outside of their “unities”, they will be unable succeed politically. Although more on the literal side of things, Japan has been increasing their use of robotics in everyday life. Much of the technology that has been developed displaces the need for humans completely, which raises questions of what the future holds for not only human to robot interaction, but trust. I was excited to be able to connect cyborgs to Japan, because I enjoyed this article in class. With the increase of artificial intelligence being used, it does bring another level of reality when considering Haraway’s predictions.
Haraway D, 1991 Simians, Cyborgs and Women (Routledge, New York)
5. Bhopal: Vulnerability, Routinization, and the Chronic Disaster by S. Ravi Rajan
As we have linked rural environments with environmental injustice and demand, we can also link environmental injustice with wealth and large corporations. S. Ravi Rajan recounts the disastrous gas leak in Bhopal, India set in motion by the Union Carbide Company. What is more disturbing than the thousands of deaths, injuries, and pollution expelled from the leaking pesticide factory in 1984 is the manner in which the UCC dealt with the tragedy. Rajan explores the history of UCC, which cover years of decisions that ultimately resulted in this catastrophe. Unsafe factories that should never have been built paired with employees lacking proper training are examples of fixable problems that the UCC never spent available money on remediating. Reading Rajan’s discourse explains how the UCC maneuvered through legal hurdles which somehow resulted in almost a clean record. The situation begs the question of where wealth begins to burden the environment, and the facts are unavoidable. The bureaucracy lacks the resources to effectively repair these situations which correlates to lack of environmental repair and inherently, environmental protection. Rajan addresses the Morcha, a revolution-based group who sought to expose UCC but failed due to an “extremely doctrinal and inflexible ideology that framed its activisim”. While an activist group survived and is still present today, there is still a lack of nation-state support that continues to decline. Rajan’s article leaves the reader questioning the next step for wealthy countries with this unfortunate lack of political bearing to protect it’s growing population and the environment that supports it. As an example that juxtaposes the UCC, Japan’s Minamata Disease in the 1960s was caused by the Chisso Chemical Corporation’s dumping of mercury into Minamata’s Bay. The contamination killed 1,784 people and Chisso ended up paying $86 million dollars for compensation as well completing the mandate to clean up the contaminated waters. Although compensation was given, there process leading up to the agreement was likely a proponent in the rising democracy of Japan (George 2001). When I was comparing the two incidents, I was surprised at how similar the accidents were, but how differently they were handled. Additionally, the rise of democracy can again be tied to women in politics, and their advantage in untainted perspectives.
Rajan, S. Ravi. “Disaster, development and governance: Reflections on the’lessons’ of Bhopal.” Environmental Values (2002): 369-394.
6. Bottled Water– Richard R. Wilk
From Wilk’s 2006 publication about consumerism, he provides a very biased and opinionated piece of work regarding the capitalistic and consumerism based supply and demand of water bottles. This topic fits into the discussion of environmental problems and globalization in a more social and economic way rather than actually degrading the earth. The premise of Wilk’s argument is that people only buy and consume water bottles for the aesthetic, comfort, and health. He includes a few paragraphs in the introduction that include humanity’s relationship to water as a whole and water in a bottle. He states that “every bottle of water is a visual metaphor for control…” He views the need for water bottles as well as the disdain for them by comparing people’s distrust of tap water along with their distrust of large corporations. According to Wilk, the only way to win the business of bottle drinkers is to achieve a certain level of globalization in the sourcing of the water and the color of the label. I found this idea of consumerism somewhat synonymous to that in Japan due to the precedence of females in the market. Since women are starting to live less in line with Japanese tradition and more with their own idea of success, marketing has started to catch on and enhance this view. Like the water, women buy into this consumerism based on the aesthetic. However, differences are seen when women perform traditional rituals such as weddings, and tend to lean towards conforming to their culture again. In the same way that people can quickly abandon a product, women in Japan can abandon a certain ideology behind consumption. This complex culture of consumerism is sexist in a way, yet is not revered by feminists. I found that interesting, particularly because of the way the market shifts to accommodate female “rebellion”.
The Pure Commodity in the Age of Branding
Richard Wilk
From Journal of Consumer Culture, vol. 6, no. 3 (2006): 303–325. Used by permission of SAGE Publications.
7. Small holders, householders – Robert Netting
Robert Netting describes 2 forms of social organizations. Smallholders and householders. Smallholders is defined as smaller players in agribusiness who Netting believes to be more sustainable than large scale players. Without the interference of governments and the use of indigenous wisdom of the ecosystems, Netting describes smallholders to be “biologically regenerative, equity enhancing, and participative.” That isn’t to say that smallholders are superior to large-scale industrial farms due to the fact that physical, chemical, biological, and socioeconomic degradation has been found on both scales. However, by using a family-based approach that must make decisions based on long-term production, the land must be treated so that it can be inherited in the same manner. Netting believes that smallholders adapt in different ways towards changing population and market, which is interesting when applied towards Japan. The geography of Japan does not favor arable land, and what land that exists is highly subsidized. However, with the historical evidence of small villages that heavily relied on agriculture, Japan’s economic development eventually lead towards a large-scale agribusiness culture. Unfortunately, now, Japan is facing an increase in abandoned farmland, decrease in able workers, a 40% decrease in food sufficiency, and a lack of successors. It is arguable that if Japan maintained a smallholder organization, that these effects would be less prominent, but with so little space to farm, it cannot be assumed. This post industrial state of agriculture was interesting to me because with the amount of land to be used as farm, one would think it would be cherished and cared for. This abandonment of farmland highlights the seriousness of Japan’s changing demography.
From Robert McC. Netting, Smallholders, Householders: Farm Families and the Ecology of Intensive, Sustainable Agriculture.© 1993 by the Board of Trustees of the Leland Stanford Junior University. Used by permission of Stanford University Press.
8. How to Queer Ecology, One Goose at a Time – Alex Carr Johnson
In order to help break the dualism that is human to nature, Johnson uses geese and his own homosexuality to provide a narrative that “queers” nature. He argues that while it is our historical belief that all things in nature act in a particular and “natural” way, there is another reality that is just as natural. He explains how animals, such as geese, can be found in nature violating ecological mandates, which should allow us to expand our pre-determined mentality of what we allow to be natural. By imposing a certain standard of what nature is and allows, we have made barriers between possible truths and the truths we tolerate as a society. Johnson states, “Queer ecology is the study of dynamics across all phenomena, all behavior, all possibility. It is the relation between past, present, and future.” Although this truth may be all talk and no action, Johnson encourages discussion to further this ideology, otherwise we will always silently conform to these standards. If we apply this mentality to the case study in Japan, we can observe the phenomena already taking place. From women taking the initiative to seek jobs instead of husbands, they are taking a route other than the traditional role of the household wife. This is been widely frowned upon and women in the workplace were deemed as unnatural for decades. Additionally, the increasing use of robotics in daily life is another form of queering ecology, as robots are replacing humans in order to become a more efficient society. I found Johnson’s narrative to provide a placeholder for what I would like to believe women think.
From Orion Magazine, March/April 2011. Used by permission of author.
9. The Nature of Gender – Andrea Nightingale
In Andrea Nightingale’s approach to understanding the nature to gender divide, she focuses on the female’s interaction with environmental issues. Based on the views of some anthropologists, there are a few ways to go about defining gender. Nightingale chooses to define gender as a process rather than an assigned role by a social structure. She explores instances that involve social injustice and inequality which result in certain gender roles being established. In order to fully understand the process, she includes 3 reviews of written works that describe different definitions of gender including natural, essentialist, and materialist. Given these works, Nightingale concludes that more work needs to be done to investigate on “how gender and the environment are mutually constituted”. Instead of separating conversations about social structures and then looking at how they affect gender roles, these need to be studied in a more inclusive way. Although Nighdale’s analysis focuses on gender related to environmental issues and projects, the dialogue regarding social construct easily relates to the women in pre and postmodern Japanese society. In Chizuko Ueno’s, “The Position of Japanese Women Reconsidered”, she explains the shift in women’s roles can be seen as biased, but are not as repressive as history might allude. With the modernization of Japan, many believe that they were liberated, but in agricultural social structures, women were seen as the head of the household. Industrialization pushed these structures out slowly and the woman was then considered as part of the workforce to compensate for a previous lack of work. This is an interesting contrast to Nightingale’s work because instead of a struggle redefining the roles, the progress of Japan proved to accomplish the opposite (Ueno 1987).
From Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, vol. 24, no. 2 (2006): 165-185. Used by permission of Pion Ltd., London (www.pion.co.uk and www.envplan.com)
10. So Is Female to Male as Nature is to Culture? – Sherry B. Ortner
As a follow up article to her initial “Is Female to Male as Nature is to Culture?” publication, Ortner revisits the topic of feminism and anthropology with new insights based the progress of 20 years. She uses criticism given on her first paper to rethink the issues of male dominance and nature to culture being universal. She admits to conceptualizing culture too broadly, and therefore opens the conversation up further towards male dominance in more egalitarian countries. She also addresses the importance of understanding the process in which male dominance emerges in societies, much like Andrea Nightingale’s way of thinking. From the works of other anthropologists, 2 views on the emergence are the most popular: that males “defeat” of women or that males won dominance based on an unintentional consequence. Upon relating this work to Japan’s male dominant society, it is likely that the emergence was a product of male intentionality. The traditional woman in Japan is a housewife caretaker, and as women began to emerge out of this tradition, they were met with heavy backlash. Finally, Ortner explains that the nature to culture relationship is not always structured, although it may be a universal phenomenon. Though the structure can be defined in many ways, it is difficult to pinpoint where Japan stands. As Ueno states in her publication about Japanese women, the head of agricultural efforts in the household was women before the modern age. This goes with the idea that “…female is indeed related to male as nature is to culture.” At first, understanding these viewpoints did not come easy, but as I found a parallel with our readings to outside sources, the connections became clearer.
From Feminist Studies (1972): 5-31.
11. Chronically Unstable Bodies – Vilaça
To most, humanity is inarguably defined to being explicit to human beings and their way of living. However, in Vilaça’s article centered on the Wari’ people of Amazonia, she explores humanity as subject that must be “continually defined” due to the Wari’ perception of people and souls. The Wari believe in a separate identity called kwere that are found in all living things, as well as things found in nature such as wind and stones. This poses an interesting dynamic to our discussion on culture to nature since the relationship between the kwere and their owners is very fluid based on a plethora of social and natural characteristics. For example, based on the actions of a living thing, they can potentially transfer their physical characteristics into being a human or animal. I found this article to be extremely interesting and found myself considering the potential of these beliefs in America. When looking into the widespread religion, Shinto, in Japan, there is a similar belief regarding souls. The Shinto believe in eternal life after death in the form of “Tama”, the equivalent of a soul. Within people, the Tama does not not govern, but co-exist within the body. Though the Tama cannot exchange bodies like the kwere, it has been said that the Tama can depart the body before death as well. There are two sides of the Tama which are shortly put, good and bad. Maruyama states that the Tama can be revered as a Kami, which is the term for the earth forming goddesses. Each family in Shinto worships Kami based on ancestry, which makes these ties to the environment and the self extremely prominent in Japanese culture. (Maruyama 2000) The fact that these Kami are goddesses created another facet of feminism in Japan that is commonly overlooked.
From Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 11.3 (2005): 445-464.
12. Addictive Economies and Coal Dependency – Perdue and Pavela
Methods of Extraction and Socioeconomic Outcomes in West Virginia
Section three in our textbook is a thorough dissection of the effects of development on the environment. The three main types of development in America are discussed, each with their own characteristics, demographic, economy, geography, and level of industrialism. Looking closely at West Virginia and the constant struggle between local citizens and the mountain top removal efforts surrounding them, Perdue and Pavela clearly break down the rural effects. As a consumer-driven economy, most people are not aware of the external costs needed for obtaining electricity. By providing a 13 year timeline of coal extraction in West Virginia, it is illustrated that the economic benefits are not great enough or worth the suffocation of a community or their economy. Perdue and Pavela provide statistics from the state’s wellbeing rankings, overall health of citizens, and unemployment data from the Bureau of Labor to illustrate just how coal mining is effecting socioeconomic status of West Virginia. I found the additional tables to be informative as they had more quantitative data for the coal extraction. The statistical approach was able to reap unique results; results that the coal industry are manipulating to appear as economically sound and profitable. Not only are these resource heavy methods harming locals, but they are becoming less and less feasible as lower-emitting technology becomes available. The entire life cycle of this cheap coal is shown from the extraction processes, use, and demand for more: Perde and Pavela exploit the environmental injustice being shown to the residents and the environment itself. This form of environmental injustice can be related back to the Minamata Bay Disease that struck the fishing towns nearby. These lower income families who were dependent on the fishing industry were poisoned both physically and economically by the Chisso Chemical Corporations contamination of mercury in the bay. This echoes Perdue and Pavela’s conversation since the fishing industry in Japan caters to a large consumer base, but a only a certain demographic are confronted with injustice when tragedy strikes.
From Organization and Environment, vol. 25, no. 4 (2012): 368-384. Used by permission of SAGE.
13. A View from a Point Ethnoecology as Situated Knowledge – Nazarea
The scale broadens as we go back to one of the first articles read in class. Nazarea aims to assess how times have changed and how we no longer interact and perceive the environment as we did once before. This is a problem because with the old ideology, we are missing out on countless opportunities to redefine ethnoecology. Nazarea uses the scope of culture to explore the relationship and also uses natives and their local knowledge to explain her take on Ethnoecology. Unlike the arguments made by Berkes, Nazarea uses a good deal of other anthropologists’ approaches and explains what she believes to be flawed about them. Her dissatisfaction with the current state of defining culture and our environment come from the lack of cognitive attention. By paying more attention and refocusing the dialogue about culture on decisions and the behavior changes that accompany it, we will be able to further our understanding about our environmental interactions. Japanese culture has been seen to have a deep love of nature, with the roots stemming from the Shinto religion. However, some researchers believe the love of nature to be harmful to the ecosystem as the Japanese focus their “nature” in certain plants and seasons, such as cherry blossoms. Additionally, there have been arguments made about how Japanese citizens from different backgrounds have formed a care ethic towards the environment. That is to say, each type of citizen has a different way of viewing the environment, and therefore it cannot be labeled. Although Japan emphasizes nature through cultural lenses, it is important that they also emphasize nature in order to enhance the ecosystem and the environment as a whole. (Maruyama 2000) I thought the connection towards the Japanese love of nature was really interesting because the iconic Japanese nature is indeed focused. It did not occur to me that this could be due to a specialization in ecology that would end up harming biodiversity.
From Ethnoecology: Situated Knowledge/Located Lives by Virginia D. Nazarea. © 1999 The Arizona Board of Regents. Reprinted by permission of the University of Arizona Press.
14. Benefits of the Commons – Berkes
On a much larger scale, the need for understanding and having a discussion regarding established environmental ideas like Hardin and Malthus’ “Tragedy of the Commons” is beneficial in understanding environmental decision making. The widely preached tragedy is centered on the selfishness of humans when given an “unlimited” resource. The foundation of Berkes’ extract is to ultimately prove the original theory of the commons wrong. Berkes’ approach enables members of society to enforce a self-regulating system. He essentially puts faith into the users of the commons keeping in mind 2 characteristics of the “unlimited resources”. Control of access and subtractability are the keys that will make his positive take on the commons work. He tests Hardin’s original theory in multiple ways, and gives key examples regarding forestation, fisheries, lobstering, and beaver hunting to strengthen his argument. The examples of successful management of natural resources strengthens his discourse because they explain the situations thoroughly without the need for quantifiable evidence. Japan is a prime example for a society that follows Berkes’ model due to their immunity to a “Western” consumer society. Despite the economic boom and abundance of resources in the 19th century, the Japanese did not purchase in excess, but rather “a few items designed in accordance with Japanese lifestyle that did not waste scarce resources” (Daniels 1999). This efficient lifestyle allowed Japan to modernize easily, although as consumerism is beginning to grow and become focused on women, there might be an increase in the future. Nonetheless, Japan’s initial understanding of resource consumption can be summed up into the term “mottainai” meaning, “what a waste”. Though this term might become overshadowed by the beacon of American consumerism, some are hopeful that the importance term will continue to persist (Masters/Tokyo Time 2008).
From Nature 340.6229 (1989): 91-93.
15. Economic Growth & The Environment – Theodore Panayotou
On the same subject of environmental degradation being connected to thriving countries and economies, Panayotou brings a supporting approach with the use of an “Environmental Kuznet’s Curve”. The curve illustrates a growth in income correlating to increased environmental harm up to a point where both peak until the environmental side degradation begins to decline. Panayotou uses pollutants as a measurement of degradation among other factors such as lack of clean water, deforestation, waste, and sanitation. The pollutants’ turning points were based on per capita scales found through the use of logarithms and Panayotou’s “cross-section data and translog specification”. Focusing on different outcomes from various countries and environmental degrading factors, Panayotou identified three factors of structural forces that explain the negative affects on the environment. Throughout the article, Panayotou addresses the barriers to the curve which puts critical minds like mine to ease. He acknowledges that certain impacts on the environment cannot be reversed, but even so, the economic structure of the curve is logical. Originally, I believed that only wealthy countries had the capacity and interest to remediate environmental issues and I partially still believe so. But given Panayotou’s discussion and the topic of what developed consumerism looks like in today’s society, I am interested to see how the theory will shape the road to recovery in these booming societies. When comparing Japan and its falling population, it is essential to note that its largest city – Tokyo, is still increasing in population. Studies have shown a phenomena called “urban warming” which resulted in Tokyo’s 3 degree Celsius increase in the past century (Fujibe 2010). However, Tokyo is on the path to becoming a “Smarter City”, with plans to expand the smart grid, increase electric vehicle use, and decrease energy use and consumption in a way that still values the quality of life (Braun 2014).
From Economic Survey of Europe, no. 2 (2003): 45-72. Used by permission of United Nations Publications.
16. Carrying Capacity’s New Guise – Lisa Cligett
Folk Models for Public Debate and Longitudinal Study of Environmental Change
In Lisa Cliggett’s publication, she re-addresses the term “carrying capacity” due to its outdatedness. She uses Zambia’s Gwembe Valley as an example of human-environment relationships over time. Cliggett then lists a number of issues that accompany carrying capacity in regions that are under much different circumstances. A few of these problems include assumption of equilibrium, difficulty in measuring food resources, assumption of homogeneity, and assumption of an isolated group/region. I found that these assumptions correlated with the population and resources of Japan. As previously stated, the amount of arable land in Japan is a small fraction, and most of the population resides in dense urban cities. This problem is discussed by Cliggett as an “assumption of homogeneity across the landscape”. Although Japan is made up of many islands with plenty of water access, the terrain of the inner landscape is rough, mountainous, and inhabitable. Due to this geography, Japan must rely on many imported resources, which is another assumption proved incorrect. Carrying capacity isolates a country without considering outside resources, which is the main component of economy worldwide. Additionally, Cliggett adds that the term carrying capacity eliminates any chance of an increase. Without including rising technologies that will extend resources and improve quality of life for more people, the term is falling into oblivion. Cliggett concludes by emphasizing that, despite the term being outdated and full of errors, there are questions to be asked in order to achieve clarity on population issues. Certain questions for Japan might include, “How will the decrease in population affect the environment?” “How might we adjust food and energy wisely to compensate for the change?” I believe that Japan is already ahead of the curve in creating a larger carrying capacity by densely populating it’s cities. As a term that is so widely taught in schools, I agree with Cliggett in that the term is lacking important considerations. The world is evolving at a pace that no longer needs a term to limit it’s potential, in both positive and negative ways.
From Africa Today vol. 48, no.1 (2001): 2-19. Used by permission of Indiana University Press.
17. Ester Boserup’s Theory of Agrarian Change – A Critical Review: David Grigg
David Grigg provides a structured review of Ester Boserup’s theory behind what drives agriculture to change. One of the four major causes she identifies as problems in agriculture is population growth. Boserup claims that the amount of increased output from agriculture has a negative effect on the lands, and therefore the production of food. She also includes agricultural technology, land tenure systems, and settlement form in her argument. Grigg adds in the assumptions which should be understood in order to fully understand her stance. These assumptions are rather large, and cannot be applied to certain situations, for example Japan. Although Japan currently has a declining population that omits itself from the population growth that Boserup assumes, pre-industrial Japanese agriculture can be compared. Indeed the agricultural peak in Japan was during pre-industrial times, and they were forced to undergo changes that Boserup emphasizes. Between 1946 and 2004, Japan experienced a 68% increase in population and a 66% decrease in employees in farms. In order to keep up with the demand for food, Japan underwent changes such as intensified practice and new technology. Although Boserup does not touch on the cattle side of agriculture, Japan’s main intensification practices were found in meat. It is interesting to note that Japan’s agriculture still has not recovered fully, and in fact, change in agriculture was a product of the demand shift from rice to fruit, meat, and vegetables as well as a lifestyle shift from rural to urban. While population plays a large role in the decline, the incline of the elderly population displaces many farming jobs due to labor as Boserup notes. Subsequently, farming land is abandoned (Gasparatos 2011). This article was the perfect connection to agriculture as the social systems during Japan’s agrarian boom emphasized women and power in a way that is no longer seen in modern Japan. I think it is important to understand the history of this boom and how Japan reacted to it’s decline.
From David Grigg, Progress in Human Geography, vol. 3, no. 1 (1979): 64-84. Used by permission of SAGE Publications.
18. Protecting the Environment the Natural Way – James G. Carrier
In order to address the area of green consumerism, Carrier looks into the ethics of what drives consumers to purchase into commodities, whether it be material or experiential. Carrier heavily references Marx’s term of commodity fetishism, a term I was not familiar with prior to this reading. Carrier uses a general definition of commodity fetishism and his ideas of ethical consumption to explain how markets and the economy end up masking the true makings of a product. Essentially, he explains the notion of greenwashing and perpetuating an image that is supposed to entail the product being sold to the moral consumer. This façade isn’t to say that the marketing is lying, but has been engineered to allow people to make a split decision for the better, despite their true living habits. Finally, Carrier emphasizes that this fetishisation happens within the environment itself, particularly in ecotourism and national parks which end up commoditizing nature. This ends up having negative impacts to the environment it is intending to protect by attracting attention at harmful volumes. To circulate the conversation back to Japan and the perception of the environment, I was brought back to Masatsuga’s article. It was stated that the Japanese love of nature might just be a love for purifying, rather than preserving. This might be the case for certain Japanese traditions, such as the cherry blossom festival, which draws in millions of visitors each spring. Some criticize that this emphasis of the environment in certain seasons is not as environmentally sound as it seems. (Mastsuga 2000) This article was thought provoking and slightly painful because I fit under the category of moral consumers who enjoy environmental based travelling. While I understand the impact of travel, I also cannot part with the aesthetic and fulfillment it brings. Carrier believes that the fulfillment can be found through alternatives that are more available.
From Antipode, vol. 42, issue 3 (2010): 672–689. © 2010 The Author Journal compilation © 2010 Editorial Board of Antipode. Used by permission of John Wiley and Sons.
19. Indigenous Initiatives and Petroleum Politics in the Ecuadorian Amazon Suzanna Sawyer
Following our initial discussion on globalization and the way we think about environmental issues being local vs. global, Suzanna Sawyer offers an in depth history on the ARCO activity in Ecuador. Sawyer recounts the drilling activities that took place in the indigenous lands of Pastaza. The organization that represented the peoples of the region was known as the OPIP, and did not take the degrading side effects of the oil drilling lightly. They were not the only voices in the discussion, and some indigenous drilling supporters of the region were taken advantage of by ARCO, and with that, the “corporate operations both facilitated and profited from dividing indigenous loyalties”. This is important in our discussion because ARCO uses the excuse that this party was geographically closer to the areas affected by the drilling. Sawyer brings the indigenous peoples’ definitions of land ownership in order to allow us to understand what their idea of local looks like. The term territorio or territory is understood by the Amazonian people as, “land that belongs to no one.” Despite the proximity, this idea of a local environmental problem was not valid to the OPIP and they were able to gain support from Ecuadorian groups as well as US and European justice groups to counter the divide. This is an example of an environmental issue that was not affecting those outside of Ecuador, but was still acted on and fully supported by foreigners. This local was able to gain the attention of activists across the seas, but also achieved success with the Ecuadorian protests at the Villano Assembly. Sawyer’s article is extremely factual and in favor of the indigenous people while providing a look into the future of the people of Pastaza. Although my research did not include this caliber of environmental degradation in Japan, I would be interested to find out how the fishing and agriculture communities cope with the lack of work force due to the decline in population. This article left me asking myself questions regarding bringing in outside aid like Ecuador’s scenario, but to help with labor.
From Cultural Survival Quarterly (Spring 1996): 26–30. Used by permission of New York University Press.
20. The Antipolitics Machine: James Ferguson with Larry Lohmann
Humanitarian aid has always been viewed as a positive outlet for wealthy countries. Developing countries are always described in such a way that makes it dutiful for other countries to offer help in the form of development programs. Ferguson’s article focuses on Lesotho, South Africa and the true effects of the assistance given from 26 countries. The millions of dollars that have been poured into these programs are a result of inaccurate claims made by agencies; these claims exaggerate and in some ways lie about Lesotho’s true economic and agricultural status. However, the target of these programs are failing due to the short term nature of the programs, and residential immunity to the so-called aid. Despite the failure of the intended purposes of the programs, there have been benefits seen in the structure of government by “expanding the exercise of bureaucratic state power”. Ferguson addresses these ongoing failures and poses the question on the readers and those in the position of aid agencies. The discomfort that this topic usually brings is the underlying barrier of the success of these development programs. Upon reading the article, the solution is easier said than done: The lack of social, political, and ethnographic understanding must be enhanced. I wanted to use this article to relate the possibility of enhanced immigration to Japan. Although this is not a humanitarian aid effort by any means, there is a need to be fulfilled by help overseas: Japan’s economy needs immigrants. In Japan Today, an article states that Japan has issued 9 zones throughout the countries as strategic areas for immigrants. In hopes to revive the economy and prepare for the effects of population decline, the immigrants would work and eventually bring diversity to the country. (KUCHIKOMI 2015) Relating this to the Antipolitics Machine was not meant to highlight the downfalls of humanitarian aid compared to possible downfalls in immigration, but identify a possible area for international involvement.
From The Ecologist, vol. 24, no. 5 (1994):176–181. Used by permission of The Ecologist.
Specialty Area Abstracts:
- Fragmented Work in Post-Bubble Japan: Negotiating Identity, Gender, Age, and Class in Triangular Employment Relationships: Huiyan Fu
Huiyan Fu’s study focuses on neoliberalism and globalization’s impact on the Japanese workforce. More specifically, he looks at employees in temporary agency work (TAW) in the post-bubble era of Japan’s economy which placed immense pressure on employment. The workers in these short term contracts are referred to as “non-regular” workers and have sparked controversy towards staffing agencies as some believe them to be merely increasing the population “working poor”. Due to the lack of permanence in TAW, the effects on the employees of Japan include a loss of identity of the self and inherently new perceptions of life. In order to investigate this industry, Fu undergoes the employment process and completes research from the inside of 2 large firms specializing in finance and manufacturing. Since Japan is a collective society that emphasizes social harmony, Fu follows other employees within the firm to explain the disconnect between this way of life, and the social construct of the TAW. From females who work to find possible suitors but are not treated equally, to hardworking, non-confrontational male workers, the constituents of TAW are all personally effected in different ways. Fu concludes that gender, educational background, and a socialistic state of mind contribute to the disharmony between flexible jobs such as TAW, which are the unfortunate result of an economic disaster as firms strive towards globalization. I selected this article to highlight the role of women in the workplace since Fu uses female testimonials that provide a narrative of a career oriented woman. This article provided more insight than a typical publication or study since Fu was acting as a colleague in order to perform his research.
Fu, H. (2013), Fragmented Work in Post-Bubble Japan: Negotiating Identity, Gender, Age, and Class in Triangular Employment Relationships. Anthropol Work Rev, 34: 27–38. doi:10.1111/awr.12004
- Exploring Women’s Views of Matrimony and Work in Japan; Kumiko Nemoto
To better understand the views that Japanese women have on marriage and employment, Kumiko Nemoto’s conducted in depth interviews with 26 women from Tokyo. Some research states that marriage rates have gone down since the Japan’s bubble economy burst in 1990, but demographers understand the decline to be a result of a growth of educated women in society striving for equality in marriage. Nemoto argues the side of gender equality, therefore the women selected for the study have strong educational backgrounds and are likely to earn a high income. By ruling out factors such as cohabitation, the main reasoning behind declining marriage rates seems to be attributed to female success overpowering that of males. Historically, the role of the woman in households include a focus on housekeeping and raising children. Upon marriage, 80% of women would abandon the workforce to take on their role as caretakers. Nemoto looked into many variables when conducting interviews such as where and whom the women lived with, work hours, their parents’ marriage patterns, and opinions on marriage. Out of the reasons for postponing or opting out of marriage, Nemoto discovered that the top 4 reasons: Incompatibility with work life, sexism in the male, rejection from males, and marriage with a male of lesser income and intelligence. These reasons derive from a movement away from traditional female roles towards gender equality, but also a commitment to traditional family values. Nemoto’s work gave me a broader sense for what the role woman is evolving into, and I found myself shocked at some of the answers given. This was another study that provided intimate results that would not have been obtained by a simple poll. I appreciated Nemoto’s emphasis on having more of a conversation with the women as it solicits honest answers.
NEMOTO, KUMIKO. “POSTPONED MARRIAGE: Exploring Women’s Views of Matrimony and Work in Japan”. Gender and Society 22.2 (2008): 219–237. Web…
- Humans and Robots Interaction: When Will Robots Come of Age? Kazuo Mizuta
As one of the most technologically advanced countries in the world, it is no wonder that Japan is looking into the widespread use of robots in its largest cities. Kazuo Mizuta explains the future of robots in daily life, including humanoids which will be fully equipped with feelings. Mizuta even predicts that in 2040, these humanoids will fully coexist with humans. With the development of robots that aid in the agricultural and manufacturing industries, these working bots can be found in the natural, human, and factory environment. Examples of robots in forestry, construction, fisheries, medicine, and rescue are already making improvements in Japan’s workforce and quality of life. Robots with more human-like characteristics will make a bigger appearance in the next 5-10 years, and are expected to create a $100 billion market. Robots aiding in elderly homes are also highly anticipated, as they will make up for the lack of workforce. The technology will allow patients in almost every aspect of their day, including rescuing the physically impaired in times of disaster. There are some considerations in using such advanced technology; in the case of the robot-body suit called HAL, there are possibilities of psychological effects and shift in brain functions. However, according to robotics scientists, the integration of robots into society is inevitable. Additionally, conversations about whether robots will compromise their lives before humans are already taking place. This can be related to Haraway’s Cyborgs piece, in a more literal sense. If the reliance on robots gets too extreme, it is possible that a cyborg society will exist. “…robots can be turned off any time, but if humans do turn off these switches, then, it is possible that their social ties will be cut off, too.” Despite the unknown that lies ahead for human intelligence, I thought the way that Japan is using robots to cope with the increasing elderly was extremely innovative. Despite some backlash against lack of human interaction, I think the elderly understand the circumstances.
Mizuta, Kazuo. “Human and Robots Interaction When Will Robots Come of Age?.” World Future Review 6.3 (2014): 251-260.
- Japanese Material Culture and Consumerism: A Review of Recent work by Inge Daniels
In a book review concerning Japanese Consumerism and it’s evolution in relation to cultural shifts and societal norms, Inge Daniels highlights the main ideals posed by 5 publications regarding material culture. While Japan has experienced high prosperities in its economy, the consumerism of its people never shifted towards the Western idea of consumerism. Although people possessed the money, there was not a need for purchasing in excess in a “the more, the better” mindset. In the papers, “Women, Media, and Consumption in Japan”, Skov and Moeran discuss the causes and effects of women in the consumer market. Arguably, Japan is a very homogenous nation, and societal norms are adopted as a sense of harmony. This often pushes a strong emphasis on women having traditional roles as mothers and caretakers, which is evident in various forms of marketing. However, as women are beginning to earn higher incomes, the Westernized consumerism is started to make more of an appearance. Researchers suggest that women who are consuming in order to achieve a youthful and “cute” look, are actually consuming in rebellion to traditional roles enforced by the male dominated society. This has been catered to in marketing, but a separate conversation revolving around weddings is seen to disagree. While these women are indulging in more of a Western lifestyle, their weddings are still capturing the Japanese tradition. Daniels refer to the work of Goldstein-Gidoni to conclude that Westernization hasn’t reached the wedding scene based on individual desires. Learning about the “kawaii” phenomenon proved the importance and scope of the female movement, personally, and I respect the actions taken by the Japanese women to further their self-made status.
Daniels, Inge M. “Book Review: Japanese Material Culture and Consumerism A Review of Recent Work.” Journal of Material Culture 4.2 (1999): 231-240.
5. Urban Warming in Japanese Cities and its relation to climate change monitoring REVIEW: Fujibe
Despite the population declining in Japan, major cities such as the capital, Tokyo are actually growing in size. In order to tie this topic into the environment, this review by Fujibe is incorporated to explain the effect of large cities and their dense populations with climate change. The phenomena of urban warming suggests that large cities have a faster rate of temperature increase due to the amount of activity, inhabitants, and energy use. Fujibe reviews urban climate change in different sections including an outline of urban warming, the extended heat island in the warm season, urban warming and climate change monitoring, and microscale effects on observed temperature change. Since this article leans more on the scientific than anthropological side, terminology and numerical data will be omitted. Overall, the temperature increase in Tokyo is at 3 degrees Celsius per century, and can even be seen in cities of medium size as well. When the heat generated by the city is blown by a sea breeze away from the city, it is referred to as an extended heat island. These results should also be considered with the biases of having the temperature monitored in dense background area. This could possibly skew the results against monitoring taken in stations with less of a populated atmosphere. This article emphasizes the amount of environmental strain that large cities have on the environment, despite the decline in population. The Tokyo metropolis will continue to attract people no matter the circumstances, so it is important to explore ways to decrease the urban warming for the future. Despite this article not being of anthropological sources, I felt was necessary to include. Although I was able to tie in environmental connections of Japanese people through the Shinto religion, I wanted to have more concrete data. As a science major, this qualitative data was essential to my topic.
Fujibe, F. (2011), Urban warming in Japanese cities and its relation to climate change monitoring. Int. J. Climatol., 31: 162–173. doi: 10.1002/joc.2142